| | Renal Failure and Acute Coronary Syndrome Due to Use of Cannabis in a 26 year old young male. | Renal Failure and Acute Coronary Syndrome Due to Use of Cannabis in a 26 year old young male.
Renal Failure and Acute Coronary Syndrome Due to Use of Cannabis in a 26 year old young male.
OVERVIEW
Cannabis, which is produced from leaves of plants called Cannabis sativa is mostly used by youths in most parts of the world, Europe inclusive. However, there are believes that cannabis is a relatively benign substance, just like alcohol and tobacco as compared to the adverse effects that heroin, ecstasy, and cocaine are associated with.
Although it is pleasure inducing, C. sativa has also some side effects in various organ systems, particularly the cardiovascular system. Sometimes, it may even threaten life. This paper is basically a case report of a 26-year-oldmale patient presenting to emergency department with acute coronary syndrome and acute renal failure. It is worth mentioning that this patient had used various forms of cannabis for a long time and had a number cardiovascular risk factors. In this article, the mechanism of action of cannabis was also discussed and analysed.
The study was concluded that coronary heart disease, acute coronary syndrome, and acute renal failure as a complication of cannabis use are likely to increase in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
AUTHORS: Turgut Karabag, Burcu Ozturk, Seda Guven, Nurettin Coskun, Erkan Ilhan, Nihan Turhan Caglar JOURNAL: International Journal of the Cardiovascular Academy PUBLISHER: Elsevier Inc URL: https://www.elsevier.com
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| | HIV and Aids | HIV and Aids
Overview
HIV disease is caused by infection with HIV-1 or HIV-2, which are retroviruses in the Retroviridae family, Lentivirus genus. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a blood-borne virus typically transmitted via sexual intercourse, shared intravenous drug paraphernalia, and mother-to-child transmission (MTCT), which can occur during the birth process or during breastfeeding. The patient with HIV may present with signs and symptoms of any of the stages of HIV infection. No physical findings are specific to HIV infection; the physical findings are those of the presenting infection or illness. Examples of manifestations include acute seroconversion manifests as a flulike illness, consisting of fever, malaise, generalized rash, generalized lymphadenopathy is common and may be a presenting symptom. This course covers the screening, diagnosis, medication and management of Aids.
Author: Sharespike
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| | Hypertension Part 3 | Hypertension Part 3
Overview Hypertension is a leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. For patients who are symptomatic, however, uncontrolled elevations in blood pressure are true medical emergencies that require rapid intervention in the ED. It is therefore important to understand the disease of chronic hypertension and, perhaps more important, episodes of acute and uncontrolled elevations in blood pressure so that we, as prehospital care providers, can better stratify these patients into low- and high-risk groups that may or may not require transport to an ED for evaluation and treatment.
As we will discuss, it is reasonable to say that not every patient who presents with hypertension is at high risk of morbidity and mortality and absolutely requires evaluation and treatment at an ED. This is not to say EMTs and paramedics should talk patients out of going to EDs for evaluation. Rather, we will strive to give prehospital care providers a better understanding of the risks involved with acute hypertension so they can better work with their patients to find a solution that is safe, reasonable and responsible for everyone involved. This article discusses the topic of acute hypertension, hypertensive urgency and hypertensive emergencies in an effort to help EMS providers better understand these illnesses and help patients make the best decisions regarding their transport and care.
Authors:
Sharespike
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| | Hypertension Part 2 | Hypertension Part 2
Overview Hypertension is a leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. For patients who are symptomatic, however, uncontrolled elevations in blood pressure are true medical emergencies that require rapid intervention in the ED. It is therefore important to understand the disease of chronic hypertension and, perhaps more important, episodes of acute and uncontrolled elevations in blood pressure so that we, as prehospital care providers, can better stratify these patients into low- and high-risk groups that may or may not require transport to an ED for evaluation and treatment.
As we will discuss, it is reasonable to say that not every patient who presents with hypertension is at high risk of morbidity and mortality and absolutely requires evaluation and treatment at an ED. This is not to say EMTs and paramedics should talk patients out of going to EDs for evaluation. Rather, we will strive to give prehospital care providers a better understanding of the risks involved with acute hypertension so they can better work with their patients to find a solution that is safe, reasonable and responsible for everyone involved. This article discusses the topic of acute hypertension, hypertensive urgency and hypertensive emergencies in an effort to help EMS providers better understand these illnesses and help patients make the best decisions regarding their transport and care.
Authors:
Sharespike
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| | Bee Sting and Anaphylaxis | Bee Sting and Anaphylaxis
Bee Sting and Anaphylaxis
Overview Hymenoptera stings account for more deaths in the United States than any other envenomation. The order Hymenoptera includes Apis species, ie, bees (European, African), vespids (wasps, yellow jackets, hornets), and ants. Most deaths result from immediate hypersensitivity reactions and anaphylaxis. Severe anaphylactoid reactions occur occasionally when toxins directly stimulate mast cells. In addition to immunologic mechanisms, some injury occurs from direct toxicity. While most stings cause only minor problems, stings cause a significant number of deaths.
Target organs are the skin, vascular system, and respiratory system. Pathology is like other immunoglobulin E (IgE)–mediated allergic reactions. Anaphylaxis is a common and life-threatening consequence of Hymenoptera stings and is typically a result of sudden systemic release of mast cells and basophil mediators. Urticaria, vasodilation, bronchospasm, laryngospasm, and angioedema are prominent symptoms of the reaction. Respiratory arrest may result in refractory cases
This study aims to discuss the different stings, prognosis and emergency reactions and treatment thereto.
Author Sharespike
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| | Asthma Exacerbation Part 2 | Asthma Exacerbation Part 2
Asthma Exacerbation Part 2
Overview
Asthma is a common chronic disease worldwide and affects approximately 26 million persons in the United States. It is the most common chronic disease in childhood, affecting an estimated 7 million children, and it is a common cause of hospitalization for children in the United States.
The pathophysiology of asthma is complex and involves airway inflammation, intermittent airflow obstruction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The mechanism of inflammation in asthma may be acute, subacute, or chronic, and the presence of airway edema and mucus secretion also contributes to airflow obstruction and bronchial reactivity. Varying degrees of mononuclear cell and eosinophil infiltration, mucus hypersecretion, desquamation of the epithelium, smooth muscle hyperplasia, and airway remodelling are present. Physical findings vary with the severity of the asthma and with the absence or presence of an acute episode and its severity. Pharmacologic management includes the use of relief and control agents.
Author Sharespike
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| | Asthma Exacerbation Part 1 | Asthma Exacerbation Part 1
Asthma Exacerbation Part 1
Overview
Asthma is a common chronic disease worldwide and affects approximately 26 million persons in the United States. It is the most common chronic disease in childhood, affecting an estimated 7 million children, and it is a common cause of hospitalization for children in the United States.
The pathophysiology of asthma is complex and involves airway inflammation, intermittent airflow obstruction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The mechanism of inflammation in asthma may be acute, subacute, or chronic, and the presence of airway edema and mucus secretion also contributes to airflow obstruction and bronchial reactivity. Varying degrees of mononuclear cell and eosinophil infiltration, mucus hypersecretion, desquamation of the epithelium, smooth muscle hyperplasia, and airway remodelling are present. Physical findings vary with the severity of the asthma and with the absence or presence of an acute episode and its severity. Pharmacologic management includes the use of relief and control agents. Author Sharespike
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| | Ischemic Stroke Part 2 | Ischemic Stroke Part 2
Overview
Ischemic stroke is characterized by the sudden loss of blood circulation to an area of the brain, resulting in a corresponding loss of neurologic function. Acute ischemic stroke is caused by thrombotic or embolic occlusion of a cerebral artery and is more common than haemorrhagic stroke.
We should consider stroke in any patient presenting with acute neurologic deficit or any alteration in level of consciousness. Although symptoms can occur alone, they are more likely to occur in combination. No historical feature distinguishes ischemic from haemorrhagic stroke, although nausea, vomiting, headache, and sudden change in level of consciousness are more common in haemorrhagic strokes. In younger patients, a history of recent trauma, coagulopathies, illicit drug use (especially cocaine), migraines, or use of oral contraceptives should be elicited.
Emergent brain imaging is essential for evaluation of acute ischemic stroke. Noncontrast computed tomography (CT) scanning is the most commonly used form of neuroimaging in the acute evaluation of patients with apparent acute stroke.
Involvement of a physician with a special interest and training in stroke is ideal. Stroke care units with specially trained nursing and allied healthcare personnel have clearly been shown to improve outcomes.
Author Sharespike
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| | Ischemic Stroke Part 1 | Ischemic Stroke Part 1
Overview
Ischemic stroke is characterized by the sudden loss of blood circulation to an area of the brain, resulting in a corresponding loss of neurologic function. Acute ischemic stroke is caused by thrombotic or embolic occlusion of a cerebral artery and is more common than haemorrhagic stroke.
We should consider stroke in any patient presenting with acute neurologic deficit or any alteration in level of consciousness. Although symptoms can occur alone, they are more likely to occur in combination. No historical feature distinguishes ischemic from haemorrhagic stroke, although nausea, vomiting, headache, and sudden change in level of consciousness are more common in haemorrhagic strokes. In younger patients, a history of recent trauma, coagulopathies, illicit drug use (especially cocaine), migraines, or use of oral contraceptives should be elicited.
Emergent brain imaging is essential for evaluation of acute ischemic stroke. Noncontrast computed tomography (CT) scanning is the most commonly used form of neuroimaging in the acute evaluation of patients with apparent acute stroke.
Involvement of a physician with a special interest and training in stroke is ideal. Stroke care units with specially trained nursing and allied healthcare personnel have clearly been shown to improve outcomes.
Author Sharespike
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| | Vertigo, Dizziness and Imbalance | Vertigo, Dizziness and Imbalance
Vertigo, Dizziness and Imbalance
Overview
Dizziness and vertigo are among the most common symptoms causing patients to visit a physician (as common as back pain and headaches). Falling can be a direct consequence of dizziness in this population, and the risk is compounded in elderly persons with other neurologic deficits and chronic medical problems.
Mild hearing loss is the most common disability worldwide. The incidence of hearing loss is 25% in people younger than 25 years, and it reaches 40% in persons older than 40 years. About 25% of the population report tinnitus.
Primary care physicians evaluate most cases of dizziness and related symptoms. Their role and that of neurologists in this setting has increased over the past decade. This article outlines the clinical approach to dizziness with emphasis on differentiating peripheral from central dizziness and on office management of the most common diseases. It also addresses indications for referral to an otolaryngologist or neuro-otologist and for specialized auditory and vestibular testing.
To diagnose dizziness, physicians must use the essential tools of history, clinical examination, and follow-up. The etiology in most of these patients mainly involves a vestibular disorder, such as BPPV, Ménière disease, or bilateral vestibular hypofunction. Appropriate management and follow-up are necessary to improve the well-being of these patients.
Authors
Sharespike
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| | Ventricular Tachycardia Part 2 | Ventricular Tachycardia Part 2
Ventricular Tachycardia Part 2
Overview
Ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) is responsible for most of the sudden cardiac deaths in the United States, at an estimated rate of approximately 300,000 deaths per year. VT refers to any rhythm faster than 100 (or 120) beats/min, with three or more irregular beats in a row, arising distal to the bundle of His. The rhythm may arise from the working ventricular myocardium, the distal conduction system, or both.
Symptoms of VT are often a function of the associated heart rate, or the causal process, such as an acute myocardial infarction (MI). They may include the following bulleted items. VT may also be asymptomatic, or the symptoms may be those of the associated triggered therapy (eg, an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator [ICD] shock).
Clinically, VT may be reflected in symptoms such as syncope, palpitations, and dyspnea. It is often, but not always, associated with hemodynamic compromise, particularly if the left ventricle is impaired or the heart rate is especially fast. With some exceptions, VT is associated with increased risk of sudden death.
Author Sharespike
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| | Ventricular Tachycardia Part 1 | Ventricular Tachycardia Part 1
Ventricular Tachycardia Part 1
Overview
Ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) is responsible for most of the sudden cardiac deaths in the United States, at an estimated rate of approximately 300,000 deaths per year. VT refers to any rhythm faster than 100 (or 120) beats/min, with three or more irregular beats in a row, arising distal to the bundle of His. The rhythm may arise from the working ventricular myocardium, the distal conduction system, or both.
Symptoms of VT are often a function of the associated heart rate, or the causal process, such as an acute myocardial infarction (MI). They may include the following bulleted items. VT may also be asymptomatic, or the symptoms may be those of the associated triggered therapy (eg, an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator [ICD] shock).
Clinically, VT may be reflected in symptoms such as syncope, palpitations, and dyspnea. It is often, but not always, associated with hemodynamic compromise, particularly if the left ventricle is impaired or the heart rate is especially fast. With some exceptions, VT is associated with increased risk of sudden death.
Author: Sharespike
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| | The eye ''An organ that must not be forgotten in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019) pandemic | The eye ''An organ that must not be forgotten in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019) pandemic
The eye ''An organ that must not be forgotten in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019) pandemic
Overview The coronavirus family is a group of zoonotic viruses with some recognized reservoirs particularly some bats. A novel coronavirus emerged in the province of Wuhan (China) in December of 2019.The number of infected patients with serious respiratory infection quickly spread around the world to become a global pandemic. The clinical presentation and viral pathogenesis of the coronavirus disease named COVID-19 indicated that the virus is transmitted from person to person through infected droplets entering the respiratory mucosa. Close contact with infected individuals particularly in crowded environments has characterized the rapid spread of the infection. Clinical manifestations of the viral infection have mentioned the presence of some ocular findings such as conjunctival congestion, conjunctivitis and even corneal injury associated with the classical COVID-19 infection. Some animal models of different coronaviruses eye infection shave described the viral pathogenesis through tear and conjunctival sampling. On the other hand, we are recommended protective measure to prevent contagion and limit the spread of the virus in health care professionals and contact lenses wearers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Authors Sandra C. Durán C, Diana C. Mayorga G Journal Journal of Optometry (2020)
| 3 | | R130.00 | |
| | Wide Complex Tachycardia | Wide Complex Tachycardia
Overview
Correct diagnosis of wide complex tachycardia (WCTs) can be challenging. With EMS providers' ever-expanding scope of practice, it is no longer safe to label any rhythm that is wide and fast as ventricular tachycardia (VT). Though many paramedic curricula do not address advanced cardiac dysrhythmias and treatments, several EMS departments have protocols that require advanced training in 12-lead ECG interpretation and treatment of specific cardiac dysrhythmias. One must possess the proper diagnostic tools and knowledge to decide whether a WCT is VT or SVT with aberrant conduction. EMS providers should be able to differentiate VT and SVT with aberrant conduction with confidence and a high degree of certainty. In order to understand the visual differences between VT and SVT with aberrant conduction, one must first understand the basic pathophysiology behind the two dysrhythmias. The first steps are maintenance of the patient’s airway with assisted breathing if necessary, cardiac monitoring to identify the heart rhythm, monitoring of blood pressure and oximetry, and establishing intravenous access. In the emergency setting, a wide-complex tachycardia always should be considered as ventricular tachycardia unless proven otherwise, as treatment must be initiated immediately to avoid degeneration into ventricular fibrillation.
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| | Unstable Angina | Unstable Angina
Overview
Unstable angina belongs to the spectrum of clinical presentations referred to collectively as acute coronary syndromes (ACSs), which also includes ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and non-STEMI (NSTEMI). Unstable angina is considered to be an ACS in which there is myocardial ischemia without detectable myocardial necrosis (ie, cardiac biomarkers of myocardial necrosis —such as creatine kinase MB isozyme, troponin, myoglobin—are not released into the circulation).
With unstable angina, symptoms may (1) occur at rest; (2) become more frequent, severe, or prolonged than the usual pattern of angina; (3) change from the usual pattern of angina; or (4) not respond to rest or nitro-glycerine. Symptoms of unstable angina are similar to those of myocardial infarction (MI).
The traditional term unstable angina was meant to signify the intermediate state between myocardial infarction (MI) and the more chronic state of stable angina. The old term pre-infarction angina conveys the clinical intent of intervening to attenuate the risk of MI or death. Patients with this condition have also been categorized by presentation, diagnostic test results, or course over time; these categories include new-onset angina, accelerating angina, rest angina, early postinfarct angina, and early post-revascularization angina.
This course deals with the causes and management of unstable angina.
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| | Severe Distress - COVID 19 | Severe Distress - COVID 19
Severe Distress - COVID 19
Overview Since the emergence of the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection in December 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has rapidly spread across the globe. The clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 ranges from asymptomatic or mild symptoms to critical disease with a high risk of mortality. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the illness associated with the novel coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The virus was initially noted during an outbreak of respiratory illness in the population of Wuhan, the capital of Hubei province, China. The first cases were seen in November 2019, with COVID-19 quickly spreading throughout the city. The World Health Organization (WHO) was notified of the outbreak on December 31, 2019. The cases continued to spread outside of the area and then across the world. COVID-19 was reported as a global health emergency by the end of January 2020. As the worldwide case numbers increased, the WHO declared on March 11, 2020, that COVID-19 had reached the pandemic stage.
The virus is now known as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The disease it causes is called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic.
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| | Septic Shock Part 2 | Septic Shock Part 2
Overview
Sepsis is defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction due to dysregulated host response to infection, and organ dysfunction is defined as an acute change in total Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score of 2 points or greater secondary to the infection cause. Septic shock occurs in a subset of patients with sepsis and comprises of an underlying circulatory and cellular/metabolic abnormality that is associated with increased mortality.
Patients with sepsis may present in a myriad of ways, and a high index of clinical suspicion is necessary to identify subtle presentations. The hallmarks of sepsis and septic shock are changes that occur at the microvascular and cellular level and may not be clearly manifested in the vital signs or clinical examination.
Patients with sepsis and septic shock require admission to the hospital. Initial treatment includes support of respiratory and circulatory function, supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation, and volume infusion.
In the past few decades, the discovery of endogenous mediators of the host response has led to the recognition that the clinical syndrome of sepsis is the result of excessive activation of host defence mechanisms rather than the direct effect of microorganisms. Sepsis and its sequelae represent a continuum of clinical and pathophysiologic severity.
Author Sharespike
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| | Septic Shock Part 1 | Septic Shock Part 1
Overview
Sepsis is defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction due to dysregulated host response to infection, and organ dysfunction is defined as an acute change in total Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score of 2 points or greater secondary to the infection cause. Septic shock occurs in a subset of patients with sepsis and comprises of an underlying circulatory and cellular/metabolic abnormality that is associated with increased mortality.
Patients with sepsis may present in a myriad of ways, and a high index of clinical suspicion is necessary to identify subtle presentations. The hallmarks of sepsis and septic shock are changes that occur at the microvascular and cellular level and may not be clearly manifested in the vital signs or clinical examination.
Patients with sepsis and septic shock require admission to the hospital. Initial treatment includes support of respiratory and circulatory function, supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation, and volume infusion.
In the past few decades, the discovery of endogenous mediators of the host response has led to the recognition that the clinical syndrome of sepsis is the result of excessive activation of host defence mechanisms rather than the direct effect of microorganisms. Sepsis and its sequelae represent a continuum of clinical and pathophysiologic severity.
Author Sharespike
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| | Respiratory Stress Syndrome | Respiratory Stress Syndrome
Respiratory Stress Syndrome
Overview
Respiratory distress syndrome, also known as hyaline membrane disease, occurs almost exclusively in premature infants. The incidence and severity of respiratory distress syndrome are related inversely to the gestational age of the new-born infant.
Shortness of breath is a common complaint encountered by the EMS provider. We often hear it as part of a litany of other S/S or as a primary chief complaint. In either case SOB is never to be taken lightly and its causes should always be thoroughly investigated. My desire with this article is to give you some tips on how to streamline your treatment and formulate your thoughts as to how to proceed. In all cases the EMS team is responsible to respond to the needs of the patient. Hypoxia, regardless of the source needs to be vigorously addressed. The lungs need to be opened or cleared as determined by the physical exam. The cause of the SOB needs to be determined and addressed. Education and counselling of parents, caregivers, and families of premature infants must be undertaken as part of discharge planning. These individuals should be advised of the potential problems infants with respiratory distress syndrome may encounter during and after their nursery stay.
Author
Sharespike
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| | Preeclampsia for EMS | Preeclampsia for EMS
Overview
Preeclampsia is a disorder of widespread vascular endothelial malfunction and vasospasm that occurs after 20 weeks' gestation and can present as late as 4-6 weeks post-partum. It is clinically defined by hypertension and proteinuria, with or without pathologic edema.
Preeclampsia is defined as the presence of (1) a systolic blood pressure (SBP) greater than or equal to 140 mm Hg or a diastolic blood pressure (DBP) greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg or higher, on two occasions at least 4 hours apart in a previously normotensive patient, OR (2) an SBP greater than or equal to 160 mm Hg or a DBP greater than or equal to 110 mm Hg or higher (In this case, hypertension can be confirmed within minutes to facilitate timely antihypertensive therapy.).
In addition to the blood pressure criteria, proteinuria of greater than or equal to 0.3 grams in a 24-hour urine specimen, a protein (mg/dL)/creatinine (mg/dL) ratio of 0.3 or higher, or a urine dipstick protein of 1+ (if a quantitative measurement is unavailable) is required to diagnose preeclampsia.
Eclampsia is defined as seizures that cannot be attributable to other causes in a woman with preeclampsia. HELLP syndrome (haemolysis, elevated liver enzyme, low platelets) may complicate severe preeclampsia.
Because the clinical manifestations of preeclampsia can be heterogeneous, diagnosing preeclampsia may not be straightforward. Preeclampsia without severe features may be asymptomatic. Many cases are detected through routine prenatal screening.
Authors
Sharespike
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Dyspnea: Pathophysiology and a clinical approach - EMT | Dyspnea: Pathophysiology and a clinical approach - EMT
Dyspnea: Pathophysiology and a clinical approach - EMT
Overview
Dyspnea is defined as a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that consists of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity and may either be acute or chronic. This is a common and often distressing symptom reported by patients, and accounts for nearly half of hospital admissions.
The distinct sensations often reported by patients include effort/work of breathing, chest tightness, and air hunger (a feeling of not enough air on inspiration). Dyspnea should be assessed by the intensity of these sensations, the degree of distress involved, and its burden or impact on instrumental activities.
Dyspnea is a common and often distressing symptom and a frequent reason for general practitioner and clinic visits. Dyspnea is symptom, and its experience is subjective and varies greatly among individuals exposed to the same stimuli or with similar pathologies. This differential experience of Dyspnea among individuals emanates from interactions among multiple physiological, psychological, social, and environmental factors that induce secondary physiological and behavioural responses. The management of Dyspnea will depend on the underlying cause.
Author
Sharespike
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| | Emphysema Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Asthma | Emphysema Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Asthma
Emphysema Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Asthma
Overview Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are airflow-limited states contained within the disease state known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Just as asthma is no longer grouped with COPD, the current definition of COPD put forth by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) also no longer distinguishes between emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Emphysema is pathologically defined as an abnormal permanent enlargement of air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles, accompanied by the destruction of alveolar walls and without obvious fibrosis. This process leads to reduced gas exchange, changes in airway dynamics that impair expiratory airflow, and progressive air trapping. Clinically, the term emphysema is used interchangeably with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD.
The theory surrounding this definition has been around since the 1950s, with a key concept of irreversibility and/or permanent acinar damage. However, new data posit that increased collagen deposition leads to active fibrosis, which inevitably is associated with breakdown of the lung’s elastic framework.
Discussions on how obstructive diseases share similar phenotypes have been emerging and evolving within the literature. This course provides a particularly good outline.
Author Sharespike
| 3 | | R145.00 | |
| | Hypertension Part 1 | Hypertension Part 1
Overview Hypertension is a leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. For patients who are symptomatic, however, uncontrolled elevations in blood pressure are true medical emergencies that require rapid intervention in the ED. It is therefore important to understand the disease of chronic hypertension and, perhaps more important, episodes of acute and uncontrolled elevations in blood pressure so that we, as prehospital care providers, can better stratify these patients into low- and high-risk groups that may or may not require transport to an ED for evaluation and treatment.
As we will discuss, it is reasonable to say that not every patient who presents with hypertension is at high risk of morbidity and mortality and absolutely requires evaluation and treatment at an ED. This is not to say EMTs and paramedics should talk patients out of going to EDs for evaluation. Rather, we will strive to give prehospital care providers a better understanding of the risks involved with acute hypertension so they can better work with their patients to find a solution that is safe, reasonable and responsible for everyone involved. This article discusses the topic of acute hypertension, hypertensive urgency and hypertensive emergencies in an effort to help EMS providers better understand these illnesses and help patients make the best decisions regarding their transport and care.
Authors:
Sharespike
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| | Burn Resuscitation and Early Management | Burn Resuscitation and Early Management
Burn Resuscitation and Early Management
Overview Burn resuscitation refers to the replacement of fluids in burn patients to combat the hypovolemia and hypoperfusion that can result from the body’s systemic response to burn injury. The history of modern burn resuscitation can be traced back to observations made after large urban fires at the Rialto Theatre (New Haven, Conn) in 1921 and the Coconut Grove nightclub (Boston, Mass) in 1942. At the time, physicians noted that some patients with large burns survived the event but died from shock in the observation periods. Underhill and Moore identified the concept of thermal injury–induced intravascular fluid deficits in the 1930s and 1940s, and Evans soon followed with the earliest fluid resuscitation formulas in 1952. Up to that point, burns covering as little as 10-20% of total body surface area (TBSA) were associated with high rates of mortality.
Burns are a serious cause of human suffering and mortality globally. As many as 5% of burn victims will die as a result of their injuries, and many others will suffer disability, disfigurement, or scarring. This course addresses vital information regarding burn resuscitation and the early management thereof.
| 3 | | R140.00 | |
| | Convulsions and Seizures | Convulsions and Seizures
Overview Emergency services attend patients who are having a seizure on almost a daily basis. Consequently, they should understand the disease processes related to seizures and be confident in their prehospital management. In general, with the exception of a patient in Status Epilepticus, seizure management should be relatively straight forward.
So, what is a seizure and what causes it? Basically, a seizure is any unusually excessive neuronal firing from the brain which manifests as changes in a patient’s motor/sensory control, sensory perception, behaviour and autonomic function. At a chemical level a seizure occurs when there is a sudden biochemical imbalance between the excitatory neurotransmitters and inhibitory neurotransmitters. The primary excitatory neurotransmitter found in the human central nervous system is called N-Methyl D Aspartate (NMDA); whereas the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter is called gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). When there is an imbalance between these chemical mediators repeated firing and excitations of the neuronal cells occur.
Depending on the area of the brain in which this occurs, the seizure will manifest as a focal seizure, sensory change, behaviour disturbance, or complete tonic and clonic muscular activity. This course addresses important aspects relating to convulsions and seizures
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| | Bradycardia | Bradycardia
Overview Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening emergency that requires immediate prehospital care, but to date all treatment guidelines have been based on an in-hospital treatment. At EMS World Expo Peter Taillac, MD, detailed the process of an expert panel to research and publish an evidence-based guideline (EBG) for the recognition and treatment of anaphylaxis. The expert panel attempted to answer a series of questions about anaphylaxis assessment and treatment through literature research and review. The guideline is intended to serve as the scientific basis for future EMS anaphylaxis protocols.
Good evidence suggests that physicians under-prescribe epinephrine and that patients (or their parents) fail to use epinephrine as quickly as possible. Accordingly, at discharge, all patients should be provided an epinephrine autoinjector and should receive proper instruction on how to self-administer it in case of a subsequent episode.
| 3 | | R120.00 | |
| | Anaphylactic Reaction Protocol | Anaphylactic Reaction Protocol
Anaphylactic Reaction Protocol
Overview Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening emergency that requires immediate prehospital care, but to date all treatment guidelines have been based on an in-hospital treatment. At EMS World Expo Peter Taillac, MD, detailed the process of an expert panel to research and publish an evidence-based guideline (EBG) for the recognition and treatment of anaphylaxis. The expert panel attempted to answer a series of questions about anaphylaxis assessment and treatment through literature research and review. The guideline is intended to serve as the scientific basis for future EMS anaphylaxis protocols.
Good evidence suggests that physicians under-prescribe epinephrine and that patients (or their parents) fail to use epinephrine as quickly as possible. Accordingly, at discharge, all patients should be provided an epinephrine autoinjector and should receive proper instruction on how to self-administer it in case of a subsequent episode.
| 3 | | R120.00 | |
| | Catastrophe in Radiology: Considerations Beyond Common Emergencies | Catastrophe in Radiology: Considerations Beyond Common Emergencies
Catastrophe in Radiology: Considerations Beyond Common Emergencies
Overview Organizations around the world increasingly prepare for the “what ifs” of our environments. Regulating and certifying agencies mandate organizational plans for threat management to include risk factor identification, threat mitigation, prevention (when possible), response to, and recovery from the event.
Disasters often occur without warning and have the potential to affect large numbers of people. Those in the radiology environment experience unique effects on them, their equipment, and their ability to provide quality patient care. Lessons can be learned by reviewing events and their impact on imaging departments around the world. Radiology departments need to be actively involved in the disaster planning and the management of disasters when they occur. Common themes emerge regardless of the type of disaster, and these themes should be included in all planning.
Even with an ever-increasing amount of information available and regulations to comply with, radiology departments are still often excluded from a hospital's disaster management plan and drills. Often, it is not until an organization experiences a catastrophic event that the identification of a plan for radiology's role during a disaster comes to mind.
Authors Valerie Aarne Grossman Journal Journal of Radiology Nursing (2020)
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| | Status of Vaccination Against Hepatitis B Among Dental Assistants of Multan | Status of Vaccination Against Hepatitis B Among Dental Assistants of Multan
Status of Vaccination Against Hepatitis B Among Dental Assistants of Multan
Overview: Direct contact of dental health care workers (and doctors) with patients makes them prone to get infection with hepatitis B and other communicable disease. Dentists are profoundly at risk of getting infected from patient's saliva and blood. Stick Injuries with needle or other sharp instruments used during medical procedures and blood transfusion have the risk to transfer hepatitis B among the medicinal services specialists. It is important to prepare for safety measures to avoid cross infection with Hepatitis B.4 Dental assistants work closely with patients, under the guidance of a dental surgeon. It is an ethical duty of an employee to protect the patient and health care assistant from cross infection contamination.6 Immunization against Hepatitis B should be mandatory for every health care worker. The Objective of this study was to find out the status of vaccination against of Hepatitis B virus among dental assistants of Multan. It was concluded that lack of motivation was the main reason for not receiving vaccination. Self-reported rate of hepatitis B vaccination among Dental Assistants of Multan was low. Lack of motivation was the main impediment.
Authors: Mohsin Javaid, Muhammad Jamil, Mustafa Sajid
Journal: Javaid M, Jamil M, Sajid M. Status of vaccination against hepatitis B among dental assistants of multan. J Pak Dent Assoc 2020;29(1):42-45. DOI:
| 3 | | R125.00 | |
| | COVID-2019 – A comprehensive pathology insight | COVID-2019 – A comprehensive pathology insight
COVID-2019 – A comprehensive pathology insight
Overview Corona virus disease-2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus-2 (SARS CoV- 2), a highly contagious single stranded RNA virus genetically related to SARS CoV. The lungs are the main organs affected leading to pneumonia and respiratory failure in severe cases that may need mechanical ventilation. Occasionally patient may present with gastro-intestinal, cardiac and neurologic symptoms with or without lung involvement. Pathologically, the lungs show either mild congestion and alveolar exudation or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with hyaline membrane or histopathology of acute fibrinous organizing pneumonia (AFOP) that parallels disease severity. Other organs like liver and kidneys may be involved secondarily. Currently the treatment is principally symptomatic and prevention by proper use of personal protective equipment and other measures is crucial to limit the spread. During the pandemic there is paucity of literature on pathological features including pathogenesis, hence in this review we provide the current pathology centred understanding of COVID-19. Furthermore, the pathogenetic pathway is pivotal in the development of therapeutic targets.
Authors Chandrakumar Shanmugam, Abdul Rafi Mohammed, Swarupa Ravuri, Vishwas Luthra, Narasimhamurthy Rajagopal, Saritha Karre
Journal Pathology - Research and Practice 216 (2020) 153222
| 3 | | R130.00 | |
| | Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in general practitioners and nurses in primary care and nursing homes in the Healthcare Area of León and associated factors | Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in general practitioners and nurses in primary care and nursing homes in the Healthcare Area of León and associated factors
Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in general practitioners and nurses in primary care and nursing homes in the Healthcare Area of León and associated factors
Overview To evaluate the prevalence of and factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in general practitioners and nurses from primary care centres and nursing homes in the Healthcare Area of León (Spain). The work centre, type of profession, COVID-19 infection, level of exposure, compliance with preventive measures, isolation (if required) and diagnostic tests carried out were collected. The determination of infection was made by differentiated rapid diagnostic test (dRDT), using a finger-stick whole-blood sample. The association of variables with infection was assessed by multivariable non-conditional logistic regression. No statistically significant differences were observed by sex, type of professional, level of exposure or compliance with preventive measures. The prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in this group is low. A high number of professionals remain susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection and therefore protective measures should be taken, especially for professionals working in nursing homes.
Authors: V. Martín, T. Fernández-Villa, M. Lamuedra Gil de Gomez, O. Mencía-Ares, A. Rivero Rodríguez, S. Reguero Celada, M. Montoro Gómez, M.T. Nuevo Guisado, C. Villa Aller, C. Díez Flecha, A. Carvajal, J.P. Fernández Vázquez
Journal: Semergen. 2020;46(S1):42---46
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Ways in which healthcare interior environments are associated with perceived safety against infectious diseases and coping behaviours | Ways in which healthcare interior environments are associated with perceived safety against infectious diseases and coping behaviours
Ways in which healthcare interior environments are associated with perceived safety against infectious diseases and coping behaviours
Overview
Global pandemic outbreaks are a cause of fear. Healthcare workers (HCWs), especially those fighting the pathogens at the front line, are at higher risk of being infected while they treat patients. In addition, various environmental fomites in hospitals, which may carry infectious agents, can increase the risk of acquiring an infectious disease.
To deliver the best healthcare practice, it is critical that HCWs feel safe and protected against infectious diseases. The aim of this study was to improve understanding of HCWs’ hand hygiene (HH) behaviours and perceptions of infectious diseases from a psychological perspective.
This study found that an increase in the number of HH stations at convenient locations would increase HH compliance and perceived safety against infectious diseases among HCWs. In response to the current research gap in psychological aspects associated with HH, this study found that HCWs’ coping behaviours can be predicted by their perceived likelihood of contamination and perceived vulnerability.
Author S. Bae
Journal Journal of Hospital Infection 106 (2020) 107e114 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.06.022
URL https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7308774/pdf/main.pdf
| 3 | | R140.00 | |
| | Acute Management of Stroke | Acute Management of Stroke
Acute Management of Stroke
Overview:
The goal for the acute management of patients with stroke is to stabilize the patient and to complete initial evaluation and assessment, including imaging and laboratory studies, within 60 minutes of patient arrival. Critical decisions focus on the need for intubation, blood pressure control, and determination of risk/benefit for thrombolytic intervention.
In patients with transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), failure to recognize the potential for near- term stroke, failure to perform a timely assessment for stroke risk factors, and failure to initiate primary and secondary stroke prevention exposes the patient to undue risk of stroke and exposes clinicians to potential litigation. TIAs confer a 10% risk of stroke within 30 days, and one half of the strokes occurring after a TIA, occurred within 48 hours.
Newer stroke trials have explored the benefit of using neuroimaging to select patients who are most likely to benefit from thrombolytic therapy and the potential benefits of extending the window for thrombolytic therapy beyond the guideline of 3 hours with t-PA and newer agents. CT angiography may demonstrate the location of vascular occlusion. CT perfusion studies can produce perfusion images and together with CT angiography are becoming more available and utilized in the acute evaluation of stroke patients. Advanced neuroimaging with diffusion and perfusion imaging may then serve an important role in identifying potentially salvageable tissue at risk and guiding clinical decision-making regarding therapy.
Acknowledgements:
Authors:
Edward C Jauch
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Diabetes Mellitus Part 3 | Diabetes Mellitus Part 3
Overview Type 2 diabetes mellitus consists of an array of dysfunctions characterized by hyperglycemia and resulting from the combination of resistance to insulin action, inadequate insulin secretion, and excessive or inappropriate glucagon secretion. Poorly controlled type 2 diabetes is associated with an array of microvascular, macrovascular, and neuropathic complications.
Microvascular complications of diabetes include retinal, renal, and possibly neuropathic disease. Macrovascular complications include coronary artery and peripheral vascular disease. Diabetic neuropathy affects autonomic and peripheral nerves.
This course focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of type 2 diabetes and its acute and chronic complications, other than those directly associated with hypoglycemia and severe metabolic disturbances, such as hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
Acknowledgements Author:
Khardori
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Diabetes Mellitus Part 2 | Diabetes Mellitus Part 2
Overview Type 2 diabetes mellitus consists of an array of dysfunctions characterized by hyperglycemia and resulting from the combination of resistance to insulin action, inadequate insulin secretion, and excessive or inappropriate glucagon secretion. Poorly controlled type 2 diabetes is associated with an array of microvascular, macrovascular, and neuropathic complications.
Microvascular complications of diabetes include retinal, renal, and possibly neuropathic disease. Macrovascular complications include coronary artery and peripheral vascular disease. Diabetic neuropathy affects autonomic and peripheral nerves.
This course focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of type 2 diabetes and its acute and chronic complications, other than those directly associated with hypoglycemia and severe metabolic disturbances, such as hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
Acknowledgements Author:
Khardori
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Diabetes Mellitus Part 1 | Diabetes Mellitus Part 1
Overview Type 2 diabetes mellitus consists of an array of dysfunctions characterized by hyperglycemia and resulting from the combination of resistance to insulin action, inadequate insulin secretion, and excessive or inappropriate glucagon secretion. Poorly controlled type 2 diabetes is associated with an array of microvascular, macrovascular, and neuropathic complications.
Microvascular complications of diabetes include retinal, renal, and possibly neuropathic disease. Macrovascular complications include coronary artery and peripheral vascular disease. Diabetic neuropathy affects autonomic and peripheral nerves.
This course focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of type 2 diabetes and its acute and chronic complications, other than those directly associated with hypoglycemia and severe metabolic disturbances, such as hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
Acknowledgements Author:
Khardori, MD
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Trauma Part 2 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Trauma Part 2
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Trauma Part 2
Overview “Injury is an increasingly significant health problem throughout the world. Every day, 16 000 people die from injuries, and for every person who dies, several thousand more are injured, many of them with permanent sequelae. Injury accounts for 16% of the global burden of disease. The burden of death and disability from injury is especially notable in low- and middle-income countries. By far the greatest part of the total burden of injury, approximately 90%, occurs in such countries” (Mock et al., 2004). The focus of pre-hospital trauma management remains the rapid access and extrication of patients to allow for the rapid assessment and control of bleeding, the airway and ventilation. There is a renewed focus on the importance of rapid transport as the most important factor for trauma survival remains time to access of definitive care and operative haemostasis. Bleeding remains one of the most important contributors to traumatic death. The prevention of the trauma triad of death: hypothermia, acidosis and coagulopathy remain an important goal. Haemodilution and the role of pre-hospital fluid management has also received significant attention. Many well-developed trauma systems are moving towards restrictive fluid management regimes, specific haemodynamic targets and the introduction of pre-hospital initiation of blood product administration. The control and prevention of bleeding remains a central focus for pre-hospital providers. Acknowledgement Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pediatric Gastroenteritis | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pediatric Gastroenteritis
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pediatric Gastroenteritis
Overview
Infective gastroenteritis in young children is characterised by the sudden onset of diarrhoea, with or without vomiting. Most cases are due to an enteric virus, but some are caused by bacterial or protozoal infections. The illness usually resolves without treatment within days; however, symptoms are unpleasant and affect both the child and family or carers. Severe diarrhoea can quickly cause dehydration, which may be life threatening (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, 2009). Oral rehydration therapy is replacement of fluids and electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride necessary for normal physiological functions and is effective in 95% of cases of mild to moderate dehydration. Oral rehydration therapy is less invasive, less expensive, is associated with less morbidity and can be dispensed outside of the hospital setting, while being as effective as IV treatment (Medical Services Commission, 2010).
Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pain and Procedural Sedation | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pain and Procedural Sedation
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pain and Procedural Sedation
Overview “The management of acute traumatic pain is a crucial component of pre-hospital care and yet the assessment and administration of analgesia is highly variable, frequently suboptimal, and often determined by consensus-based protocols” (Gausche-Hill et al., 2014). Pain management is also frequently based on the assessment of need by a provider, rather than the requirements of patients. Historically only Entonox and morphine have been available for pre-hospital pain management in the local setting with the more recent introduction of ketamine. Availability of appropriate and effective treatment options, especially for non-ALS providers, remains a challenge. Situations requiring procedural sedation and analgesia in the pre-hospital setting are common and may range from alignment of fracture to extrication and complex disentanglement during medical rescue. Until recently South African pre-hospital providers did not have agents suitable for this purpose, particularly in the setting of severe trauma and hypotension. As ketamine has been introduced into some scopes of practice providing safe and effective dissociative procedural analgesia has become a possibility. However, the use of procedural sedation and analgesia is not without risks and, at this time, no uniform practice has been suggested in the South African pre-hospital setting. Acknowledgement Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 4 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 4
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 4
Overview
There were no evidence-based clinical practice guidelines addressing obstetric issues from a purely pre-hospital emergency services perspective. Despite this, there were many high-quality recommendations from in hospital and other types of health facilities (e.g. midwife run delivery units) which are directly applicable to pre-hospital management of obstetrics. The delivery and birth process will ideally not occur in the pre-hospital environment, but every practitioner needs to be able to manage a delivery and to intervene where necessary within the limits of their scope of practice.
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 3 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 3
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 3
Overview
There were no evidence-based clinical practice guidelines addressing obstetric issues from a purely pre-hospital emergency services perspective. Despite this, there were many high-quality recommendations from in hospital and other types of health facilities (e.g. midwife run delivery units) which are directly applicable to pre-hospital management of obstetrics. The delivery and birth process will ideally not occur in the pre-hospital environment, but every practitioner needs to be able to manage a delivery and to intervene where necessary within the limits of their scope of practice.
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynaecology Part 2 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynaecology Part 2
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynaecology Part 2
Overview
There were no evidence-based clinical practice guidelines addressing obstetric issues from a purely pre-hospital emergency services perspective. Despite this, there were many high-quality recommendations from in hospital and other types of health facilities (e.g. midwife run delivery units) which are directly applicable to pre-hospital management of obstetrics. The delivery and birth process will ideally not occur in the pre-hospital environment, but every practitioner needs to be able to manage a delivery and to intervene where necessary within the limits of their scope of practice. Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 1 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 1
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Obstetrics and Gynecology Part 1
Overview
There were no evidence-based clinical practice guidelines addressing obstetric issues from a purely pre-hospital emergency services perspective. Despite this, there were many high-quality recommendations from in hospital and other types of health facilities (e.g. midwife run delivery units) which are directly applicable to pre-hospital management of obstetrics. The delivery and birth process will ideally not occur in the pre-hospital environment, but every practitioner needs to be able to manage a delivery and to intervene where necessary within the limits of their scope of practice.
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Neonatal Resuscitation | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Neonatal Resuscitation
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Neonatal Resuscitation
Overview
Monitoring equipment for neonates and infants may not be uniformly available to all EMS providers. All ALS providers should have monitoring equipment appropriate for neonates. It is recommended that oximetry be used when resuscitation can be anticipated, when PPV is administered, when central cyanosis persists beyond the first 5 to 10 minutes of life, or when supplementary oxygen is administered. In summary, from the evidence reviewed in the 2010 CoSTR and subsequent review of delaying cord clamping and cord milking in preterm new-borns in the 2015 ILCOR systematic review, delaying cord clamping for longer than 30 seconds is reasonable for both term and preterm infants who do not require resuscitation at birth. It is recommended that the temperature of newly born non-asphyxiated infants be maintained between 36.5°C and 37.5°C after birth through admission and stabilisation. Targeted temperature management requires specific equipment and well established systems and protocol and system wide clinical governance. In neonates it may also require the establishment of dedicated, specialized and equipped retrieval teams.
Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Fever and Sepsis | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Fever and Sepsis
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Fever and Sepsis
Overview
Feverish illness in young children usually indicates an underlying infection and is a cause of concern for parents and carers. Despite advances in healthcare, infections remain a leading cause of death in children under the age of 5 years. Fever in young children can be a diagnostic challenge for healthcare professionals because it is often difficult to identify the cause. In most cases, the illness is due to a self-limiting viral infection. However, fever may also be the presenting feature of serious bacterial infections such as meningitis and pneumonia. A significant number of children have no obvious cause of fever despite careful assessment. These children with fever without apparent source are of concern to healthcare professionals because it is especially difficult to distinguish between simple viral illnesses and life-threatening bacterial infections in this group.
Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke) and General Care in Emergencies | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke) and General Care in Emergencies
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke) and General Care in Emergencies
Overview
There is growing evidence that good early stroke management can reduce damage to the brain and minimise the effects of stroke. Because of this early recognition of stroke, the subsequent response of individuals to having a stroke, and the timing and method by which people are transferred to hospital are important to ensure optimal outcomes. In this hyperacute phase of care, the ambulance service provides a central, coordinating role (Australian Government Health and Medical Research Council, 2007). Appropriate diagnosis of stroke and immediate referral to a stroke team is vital given advances in hyperacute treatments (Australian Government Health and Medical Research Council, 2007).
As in all scene responses, EMS personnel must assess and manage the patient’s airway, breathing, and circulation. Most patients with acute ischemic stroke do not require emergency airway management or acute interventions for respiratory and circulatory support (Jauch et al., 2013).
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Airway Part 2 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Airway Part 2
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Airway Part 2
Overview
Oxygen is one of the most common medications administered during the care of patients who present with medical emergencies. At present, oxygen appears to be administered for three main indications in the emergency setting, of which only one is evidence-based (British Thoracic Society Emergency Oxygen Guideline Group, 2008).
Firstly, oxygen is given to correct hypoxaemia as there is good evidence that severe hypoxaemia is harmful. Secondly, oxygen is administered to ill patients prophylactically to prevent hypoxaemia. Recent evidence suggests that this practice may place patients at increased risk of the development of hypoxaemia, reactive oxygen species, and absorption atelectasis amongst other adverse effects. Thirdly, a very high proportion of medical oxygen is administered because most clinicians believe that oxygen can alleviate breathlessness; however, there is no evidence that oxygen relieves breathlessness in non-hypoxemic patients (British Thoracic Society Emergency Oxygen Guideline Group, 2008).
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 3 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 3
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 3
Overview
The correct and timely identification of cardiac arrest is critical to ensuring (1) the appropriate dispatch of a high-priority response, (2) the provision of telephone CPR instructions, and (3) the activation of community first responders carrying automated external defibrillators (AED) (Travers et al., 2015). Rapid defibrillation is a powerful predictor of successful resuscitation following ventricular fibrillation (VF) sudden cardiac arrest (SCA). (Berg et al., 2010a)
Advanced life support (ALS) is still considered a vital link in the chain of survival for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Despite this the quality of evidence for many ALS interventions remains poor (Callaway et al., 2015) as do the outcomes of patients, particularly those suffering unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest were CPR and defibrillation is delayed. As part of the development of these guidelines, the core guideline panel opted to adopt the AHA resuscitation guidelines for advanced cardiac life support. It should therefore be noted that for recommendations not reviewed by the AHA in the 2015 edition, the 2010 recommendation are considered valid.
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 2 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 2
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 2
Overview
The correct and timely identification of cardiac arrest is critical to ensuring (1) the appropriate dispatch of a high-priority response, (2) the provision of telephone CPR instructions, and (3) the activation of community first responders carrying automated external defibrillators (AED) (Travers et al., 2015). Rapid defibrillation is a powerful predictor of successful resuscitation following ventricular fibrillation (VF) sudden cardiac arrest (SCA). (Berg et al., 2010a)
Advanced life support (ALS) is still considered a vital link in the chain of survival for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Despite this the quality of evidence for many ALS interventions remains poor (Callaway et al., 2015) as do the outcomes of patients, particularly those suffering unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest were CPR and defibrillation is delayed. As part of the development of these guidelines, the core guideline panel opted to adopt the AHA resuscitation guidelines for advanced cardiac life support. It should therefore be noted that for recommendations not reviewed by the AHA in the 2015 edition, the 2010 recommendation are considered valid.
Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 1 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 1
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Adult Resuscitation Part 1
Overview
The correct and timely identification of cardiac arrest is critical to ensuring (1) the appropriate dispatch of a high-priority response, (2) the provision of telephone CPR instructions, and (3) the activation of community first responders carrying automated external defibrillators (AED) (Travers et al., 2015). Rapid defibrillation is a powerful predictor of successful resuscitation following ventricular fibrillation (VF) sudden cardiac arrest (SCA). (Berg et al., 2010a)
Advanced life support (ALS) is still considered a vital link in the chain of survival for patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Despite this the quality of evidence for many ALS interventions remains poor (Callaway et al., 2015) as do the outcomes of patients, particularly those suffering unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest were CPR and defibrillation is delayed. As part of the development of these guidelines, the core guideline panel opted to adopt the AHA resuscitation guidelines for advanced cardiac life support. It should therefore be noted that for recommendations not reviewed by the AHA in the 2015 edition, the 2010 recommendation are considered valid.
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Airway Part 1 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Airway Part 1
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Airway Part 1
Overview
Oxygen is one of the most common medications administered during the care of patients who present with medical emergencies. At present, oxygen appears to be administered for three main indications in the emergency setting, of which only one is evidence-based (British Thoracic Society Emergency Oxygen Guideline Group, 2008).
Firstly, oxygen is given to correct hypoxaemia as there is good evidence that severe hypoxaemia is harmful. Secondly, oxygen is administered to ill patients prophylactically to prevent hypoxaemia. Recent evidence suggests that this practice may place patients at increased risk of the development of hypoxaemia, reactive oxygen species, and absorption atelectasis amongst other adverse effects. Thirdly, a very high proportion of medical oxygen is administered because most clinicians believe that oxygen can alleviate breathlessness; however, there is no evidence that oxygen relieves breathlessness in non-hypoxemic patients (British Thoracic Society Emergency Oxygen Guideline Group, 2008)
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Acute Coronary Care Syndrome Part 2 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Acute Coronary Care Syndrome Part 2
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Acute Coronary Care Syndrome Part 2
Overview
Chest pain and acute dyspnoea are among the most frequent causes of out-of-hospital emergency medical services (EMS) activation. The challenge of the pre-hospital management of chest pain, beyond rapid diagnosis, is the treatment and transfer of patients with major cardiovascular emergencies to adequate centres (Beygui et al., 2015). The required system infrastructure (i.e. local protocols and pathways of care) needs to be in place for EMS cardiovascular emergency objectives to be met. Not all recommendations below are readily implementable as local infrastructure must still be developed in South Africa. The care of ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients in the pre-hospital setting should be based on regional STEMI networks. Such networks include one or more hospitals and EMS organisations which have a shared protocol for the choice of reperfusion strategy, adjunctive therapy and patient transfer in order to provide consistent treatment to patients. Such protocols should be formally discussed between all components of the network and be available in writing (Beygui et al., 2015). Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Acute Coronary Care Syndrome Part 1 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Acute Coronary Care Syndrome Part 1
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Acute Coronary Care Syndrome Part 1
Overview
Chest pain and acute dyspnoea are among the most frequent causes of out-of-hospital emergency medical services (EMS) activation. The challenge of the pre-hospital management of chest pain, beyond rapid diagnosis, is the treatment and transfer of patients with major cardiovascular emergencies to adequate centres (Beygui et al., 2015). The required system infrastructure (i.e. local protocols and pathways of care) needs to be in place for EMS cardiovascular emergency objectives to be met. Not all recommendations below are readily implementable as local infrastructure must still be developed in South Africa.
The care of ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients in the pre-hospital setting should be based on regional STEMI networks. Such networks include one or more hospitals and EMS organisations which have a shared protocol for the choice of reperfusion strategy, adjunctive therapy and patient transfer in order to provide consistent treatment to patients. Such protocols should be formally discussed between all components of the network and be available in writing (Beygui et al., 2015). Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018)
Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Tuberculosis Part 2 | Tuberculosis Part 2
Overview Tuberculosis (TB) (see the image below), a multisystemic disease with myriad presentations and manifestations, is the most common cause of infectious disease–related mortality worldwide. Although TB rates are decreasing in the United States, the disease is becoming more common in many parts of the world. In addition, the prevalence of drug-resistant TB is increasing worldwide. Classic clinical features associated with active pulmonary TB in elderly individuals with TB may not display typical signs and symptoms. The absence of any significant physical findings does not exclude active TB. Classic symptoms are often absent in high-risk patients, particularly those who are immunocompromised or elderly. It is important to isolate patients with possible TB in a private room with negative pressure.
Acknowledgements Authors:
Thomas E Herchline,Thomas E Herchline, Judith K Amorosa, Judith K Amorosa.
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Tuberculosis Part 1 | Tuberculosis Part 1
Overview Tuberculosis (TB) (see the image below), a multisystemic disease with myriad presentations and manifestations, is the most common cause of infectious disease–related mortality worldwide. Although TB rates are decreasing in the United States, the disease is becoming more common in many parts of the world. In addition, the prevalence of drug-resistant TB is increasing worldwide. Classic clinical features associated with active pulmonary TB in elderly individuals with TB may not display typical signs and symptoms. The absence of any significant physical findings does not exclude active TB. Classic symptoms are often absent in high-risk patients, particularly those who are immunocompromised or elderly. It is important to isolate patients with possible TB in a private room with negative pressure.
Acknowledgements Authors: Thomas E Herchline and Judith K Amorosa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Respiratory | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Respiratory
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Respiratory
Overview
Asthma is a common condition which produces a significant workload for general practice, hospital outpatient clinics and inpatient admissions. Much of this morbidity relates to poor management (British Thoracic Society, 2014). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a group of disorders characterised by airway inflammation and airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. COPD should be distinguished from asthma because it is a progressive, disabling disease with increasingly serious complications and exacerbations. The symptoms, signs and physiology of these conditions can overlap with asthma and differentiation can be difficult, particularly in middle-aged smokers presenting with breathlessness and cough. This difficulty is compounded by the fact that most COPD patients exhibit some degree of reversibility with bronchodilators. Patients with severe chronic asthma, chronic bronchiolitis, bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis may also present with a similar clinical pattern and partially reversible airflow limitation (The Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand, 2002). Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Seizures | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Seizures
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Seizures
Overview
Paediatric and adult seizures are managed in essentially the same way, with the focus on identification, injury prevention, rapid termination and prevention of ongoing seizures; ongoing attention must be paid to reversal of the cause of the seizure. Important differences in children relate to febrile seizures (covered in section 3: Fever & Sepsis) and easily correctable causes such as hypoglycaemia. Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Trauma Part 1 | Clinical Practice Guidelines: Trauma Part 1
Clinical Practice Guidelines: Trauma Part 1
Overview
“Injury is an increasingly significant health problem throughout the world. Every day, 16 000 people die from injuries, and for every person who dies, several thousand more are injured, many of them with permanent sequelae. Injury accounts for 16% of the global burden of disease. The burden of death and disability from injury is especially notable in low- and middle-income countries. By far the greatest part of the total burden of injury, approximately 90%, occurs in such countries” (Mock et al., 2004). The focus of pre-hospital trauma management remains the rapid access and extrication of patients to allow for the rapid assessment and control of bleeding, the airway and ventilation. There is a renewed focus on the importance of rapid transport as the most important factor for trauma survival remains time to access of definitive care and operative haemostasis. Bleeding remains one of the most important contributors to traumatic death. The prevention of the trauma triad of death: hypothermia, acidosis and coagulopathy remain an important goal. Haemodilution and the role of pre-hospital fluid management has also received significant attention. Many well-developed trauma systems are moving towards restrictive fluid management regimes, specific haemodynamic targets and the introduction of pre-hospital initiation of blood product administration. The control and prevention of bleeding remains a central focus for pre-hospital providers. Acknowledgement
Journal: Clinical Practice Guidelines (July 2018) Publisher: Health Professions Council of South Africa
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Viral Pneumonia Part 3 | Viral Pneumonia Part 3
Overview The reported incidence of viral pnViral Pneumonia Part 3eumonia (see the image below) has increased during the past decade. In part, this apparent increase simply reflects improved diagnostic techniques, but an actual increase appears to have also occurred. Depending on the virulence of the organism, as well as the age and comorbidities of the patient, viral pneumonia can vary from a mild, self-limited illness to a life-threatening disease. This course is divided into 3 parts covering the aspects of Pneumonia leading into the much dreaded COVID 19 The influenza viruses are the most common viral cause of pneumonia. Primary influenza pneumonia manifests with persistent symptoms of cough, sore throat, headache, myalgia, and malaise for more than three to five days. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most frequent cause of lower respiratory tract infection in infants and children and the second most common viral cause of pneumonia in adults.
Parainfluenza virus (PIV) is second in importance only to RSV as a cause of lower respiratory tract disease in children and pneumonia and bronchiolitis in infants younger than 6 months. PIV pneumonia and bronchiolitis are caused primarily by the PIV-3 strain. The signs and symptoms include fever, cough, coryza, dyspnea with rales, and wheezing.
Acknowledgements Authors:
Zab Mosenifar and Richard Brawerman
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Viral Pneumonia Part 2 | Viral Pneumonia Part 2
Overview The reported incidence of viral pneumonia (see the image below) has increased during the past decade. In part, this apparent increase simply reflects improved diagnostic techniques, but an actual increase appears to have also occurred. Depending on the virulence of the organism, as well as the age and comorbidities of the patient, viral pneumonia can vary from a mild, self-limited illness to a life-threatening disease. This course is divided into 3 parts covering the aspects of Pneumonia leading into the much dreaded COVID 19. The influenza viruses are the most common viral cause of pneumonia. Primary influenza pneumonia manifests with persistent symptoms of cough, sore throat, headache, myalgia, and malaise for more than three to five days. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most frequent cause of lower respiratory tract infection in infants and children and the second most common viral cause of pneumonia in adults.
Parainfluenza virus (PIV) is second in importance only to RSV as a cause of lower respiratory tract disease in children and pneumonia and bronchiolitis in infants younger than 6 months. PIV pneumonia and bronchiolitis are caused primarily by the PIV-3 strain. The signs and symptoms include fever, cough, coryza, dyspnea with rales, and wheezing.
Acknowledgements Authors:
Zab Mosenifar and Richard Brawerman
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Viral Pneumonia Part 1 | Viral Pneumonia Part 1
Overview The reported incidence of viral pneumonia (see the image below) has increased during the past decade. In part, this apparent increase simply reflects improved diagnostic techniques, but an actual increase appears to have also occurred. Depending on the virulence of the organism, as well as the age and comorbidities of the patient, viral pneumonia can vary from a mild, self-limited illness to a life-threatening disease. This course is divided into 3 parts covering the aspects of Pneumonia leading into the much dreaded COVID 19. The influenza viruses are the most common viral cause of pneumonia. Primary influenza pneumonia manifests with persistent symptoms of cough, sore throat, headache, myalgia, and malaise for more than three to five days. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most frequent cause of lower respiratory tract infection in infants and children and the second most common viral cause of pneumonia in adults.
Parainfluenza virus (PIV) is second in importance only to RSV as a cause of lower respiratory tract disease in children and pneumonia and bronchiolitis in infants younger than 6 months. PIV pneumonia and bronchiolitis are caused primarily by the PIV-3 strain. The signs and symptoms include fever, cough, coryza, dyspnea with rales, and wheezing.
Acknowledgements Authors:
Zab Mosenifar and Richard Brawerman
| 3 | | R110.00 | |
| | Suicide in Pretoria: A retrospective review, 2007 - 2010. | Suicide in Pretoria: A retrospective review, 2007 - 2010.
Suicide in Pretoria: A retrospective review, 2007 - 2010.
Overview
Background: The World Health Organization has declared suicide a global ealth crisis, predicting that ~1.53 million people will commit suicide annually by 2020. Obejective:
A study from South Africa reviewed 1 018 suicide cases in Pretoria over 4 years (1997 - 2000). Our study was undertaken to establish whether there have been substantial changes in the profile of suicide victims who died in Pretoria a decade later. Methods:
Case records at the Pretoria Medico-Legal Laboratory were reviewed retrospectively from 2007 to 2010. Results:
A total of 957 suicide cases were identified. Hanging was the most common method of suicide, followed by self-inflicted firearm injury. The true incidence of suicidal intake of prescription drugs/medication was difficult to determine, because of a backlog at the state toxicology laboratories. White males and females appeared to be over-represented among suicide victims, but there has been an increase in suicide among blacks. There seems to have been a substantial decrease in the use of firearms to commit suicide - possibly reflecting a positive outcome of gun control legislation that has been introduced in the interim. Conclusion: Suicide continues to constitute almost 10% of all fatalities admitted to the Pretoria Medico-Legal Laboratory, confirming suicide as a major cause of mortality in our society. Further research is needed to clarify the profile of suicidal deaths, with a view to informing resource allocation and to improve preventive strategies Acknowledgement
Author: Engelbrecht C, Blumenthal R, Morris NK, Saayman G
Journal: South African medical journal.
Publisher: SAMJ Research
http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/12015/8182
| 3 | | R410.00 | |
| | Denial of abortion in legal settings. | Denial of abortion in legal settings.
Denial of abortion in legal settings.
Overview
Background: Factors such as poverty, stigma, lack of knowledge about the legal status of abortion, and geographical distance from a provider may prevent women from accessing safe abortion services, even where abortion is legal. Data on the consequences of abortion denial outside of the US, however, are scarce. Methods: In this article we present data from studies among women seeking legal abortion services in four countries (Colombia, Nepal, South Africa and Tunisia) to assess sociodemographic characteristics of legal abortion seekers, as well as the frequency and reasons that women are denied abortion care. Results: The proportion of women denied abortion services and the reasons for which they were denied varied widely by country. In Colombia, 2% of women surveyed did not receive the abortions they were seeking; in South Africa, 45% of women did not receive abortions on the day they were seeking abortion services. In both Tunisia and Nepal, 26% of women were denied their wanted abortions. Conclusions: The denial of legal abortion services may have serious consequences for women's health and wellbeing. Additional evidence on the risk factors for presenting later in pregnancy, predictors of seeking unsafe illegal abortion, and the health consequences of illegal abortion and childbirth after an unwanted pregnancy is needed. Such data would assist the development of programmes and policies aimed at increasing access to and utilisation of safe abortion services where abortion is legal, and harm reduction models for women who are unable to access legal abortion services.
Acknowledgement Author:
Gerdts C, DePiñeres T, Hajri S, Harries J, Hossain A, Puri M, Vohra D, Foster DG Journal:
The journal of family planning and reproductive health care. Publisher:
BMJ Publishing Group Limited
| 3 | | R420.00 | |
| | Prehospital Use of IM Ketamine for Sedation of Violent and Agitated Patients. | Prehospital Use of IM Ketamine for Sedation of Violent and Agitated Patients.
Prehospital Use of IM Ketamine for Sedation of Violent and Agitated Patients.
OVERVIEW
Violent and agitated patients pose a serious challenge for emergency medical services (EMS) personnel. Rapid control of these patients is paramount to successful prehospital evaluation also for the safety of both the patient and crew. Sedation is often required for these patients, but the ideal choice of medication is not clear. The objective is to demonstrate that ketamine, given as a single intramuscular injection for violent and agitated patients, including those with suspected excited delirium syndrome (ExDS), is both safe and effective during the prehospital phase of care, and allows for the rapid sedation and control of this difficult patient population.
We reviewed paramedic run sheets from five different areas in suburban Florida communities. 52 patients were identified as having been given intramuscular ketamine 4mg/kg IM, following a specific protocol devised by the EMS medical director of these jurisdictions, to treat agitated and violent patients, including a subset of which would be expected to suffer from ExDS. 26 of 52 patients were also given parenteral midazolam after medical control was obtained to prevent emergence reactions associated with ketamine.
Records demonstrated that almost all patients (50/52) were rapidly sedated except for three patients no negative side effects were noted.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
AUTHORS: Kenneth A. Scheppke, MD, Joao Braghiroli, MD, Mostafa Shalaby, MD, Robert Chait, MD
JOURNAL: Western Journal of Emergency Medicine Volume XV, NO. 7: November 2014 PUBLISHER: WestJEM https://westjem.com
| 3 | | R89.00 | |
| | State of emergency medicine in South Africa. | State of emergency medicine in South Africa.
State of emergency medicine in South Africa.
OVERVIEW
Emergency medicine is a new speciality in South Africa. It was first registered in 2003, and there are now 30 specialists in the country, with 10 new graduates from local registrar training programmes and over 40 trainees on four programmes across the country. This article discusses the current structure of emergency care in South Africa.
South Africa is a young democracy. After decades of forced segregation, in 1994 the country abandoned the rule of apartheid and entered a new phase. High levels of poverty and unemployment contribute to an ever-increasing burden of disease.
South Africa faces a quadruple disease burden: violence, HIV/AIDS, infectious diseases and chronic diseases of lifestyle all take their toll, reducing the average life expectancy to 49 years for males and 52 for females [3]. Approximately one third of admissions to emergency centres (EC) in South Africa are due to injuries; in comparison, trauma makes up 12% of admissions in the US and about 8% in the UK [4].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
AUTHOR: F Jewkes
JOURNAL: Archives of Disease in Childhood
PUBLISHER: Elsevier https:// www.elsevier.com
| 3 | | R89.00 | |